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Tobacco smoking during pregnancy causes many detrimental effects on health and reproduction, in addition to the general health effects of tobacco.A number of studies have shown that tobacco use is a significant factor in miscarriages among pregnant smokers, and that it contributes to a number of other threats to the health of the foetus.
Smoking most commonly leads to diseases affecting the heart and lungs and will commonly affect areas such as hands or feet. First signs of smoking-related health issues often show up as numbness in the extremities, with smoking being a major risk factor for heart attacks, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, and cancer, particularly lung cancer, cancers of the larynx and ...
This study was a retrospective, case-control study that compared smoking habits of 684 individuals with bronchogenic carcinoma to those without the condition. [12] The survey included questions about smoking: starting age, 20 year tobacco consumption, brands used; as well as inquires about exposure to hazardous agents in the workplace, alcohol use, and causes of death for family members.
The false positive rate (FPR) is the proportion of all negatives that still yield positive test outcomes, i.e., the conditional probability of a positive test result given an event that was not present. The false positive rate is equal to the significance level. The specificity of the test is equal to 1 minus the false positive rate.
One way to assess the validity of findings is the ratio of false-positives (claimed effects that are not correct) to false-negatives (studies which fail to support a true effect). In genetic epidemiology , candidate-gene studies may produce over 100 false-positive findings for each false-negative.
One of the most prominent and well studied epigenetic consequences of cigarette smoke is altered DNA methylation. Cigarette smoke acts through a number of mechanisms to effect this, chief among these being smoke-induced damage to the DNA and altered expression levels of proteins involved in DNA methylation and transcriptional regulation.
The report's conclusions were almost entirely focused on the negative health effects of cigarette smoking. It found: cigarette smokers had a seventy percent increase in age-corrected mortality rate; cigarette smoke was the primary cause of chronic bronchitis; a correlation between smoking, emphysema, and heart disease. In addition, it reported:
Smoking during pregnancy is dangerous to the unborn baby and may cause pre-term birth, birth defects such as cleft lip or cleft palate, or miscarriage. [93] [80] Tobacco is the most commonly used substance among pregnant women, at 25%. [87] [94] Nicotine crosses the placenta and accumulates within fetal tissues.