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Prenatal stress disrupts multiple developmental systems within the individual carrying offspring. One of the disrupted processes is hormone production. Maternal exposure to excess dihydrotestosterone, progestin, and norethindrone have been linked to a higher risk of offspring developing ASD. [15]
Additional risk factors include lack of social support, marital dissatisfaction, discriminatory work environments, history of domestic abuse, and unplanned or unwanted pregnancy. [18] Studies have determined that there may be a connection between antenatal and postpartum depression in women with lower vitamin D levels. [ 19 ]
A high-risk pregnancy is a pregnancy where the mother or the fetus has an increased risk of adverse outcomes compared to uncomplicated pregnancies. No concrete guidelines currently exist for distinguishing “high-risk” pregnancies from “low-risk” pregnancies; however, there are certain studied conditions that have been shown to put the mother or fetus at a higher risk of poor outcomes. [1]
Prenatal and perinatal psychology are often discussed together to group the period during pregnancy, childbirth, and through the early stages of infancy. The role of prenatal and perinatal psychology is to explain the experience and behavior of the individual before birth , postnatal consequences, and the lasting effects on development that ...
There are several non-modifiable and modifiable risk factors that predispose women to development of this condition such as female fetus, psychiatric illness history, high or low BMI pre-pregnancy, young age, African American or Asian ethnicity, type I diabetes, multiple pregnancies, and history of pregnancy affected by hyperemesis gravidarum.
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There is a need for more research regarding the link between psychosocial risk factors and postpartum depression. Some psychosocial risk factors can be linked to the social determinants of health. [50] Women with fewer resources indicate a higher level of postpartum depression and stress than those women with more resources, such as financial. [65]
A multiple pregnancy may be the result of the fertilization of a single egg that then splits to create identical fetuses, or it may be the result of the fertilization of multiple eggs that create fraternal ("non-identical") fetuses, or it may be a combination of these factors. A multiple pregnancy from a single zygote is called monozygotic ...