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The powder consists of the dry spores of clubmoss plants, or various fern relatives principally in the genera Lycopodium and Diphasiastrum.The preferred source species are Lycopodium clavatum (stag's horn clubmoss) and Diphasiastrum digitatum (common groundcedar), because these widespread and often locally abundant species are both prolific in their spore production and easy to collect.
Black powder substitutes are measured by volumetric measurement techniques, not in grains on a scale, due to the difference in density compared to black powder. For example, to measure a "60 grain equivalent" of black powder substitute suitable for use in a muzzleloader rifle, one uses a volumetric measure that produces a volume of black powder ...
It turns out that instead of measuring scattered energy versus angle, as with light, in the case of ultrasound, measuring the transmitted energy versus frequency is a better choice. The resulting ultrasound attenuation frequency spectra are the raw data for calculating particle size distribution.
Wartime production included large cast hexagonal powder grains for Rodman guns; and an 8-inch (20 cm) Columbiad was installed at Gambo to test this specialized powder. Production increased to 1250 tons per year [ 8 ] as accidental explosions killed one employee on 8 July 1861, three on 7 July 1862, and another on 14 November 1863. [ 5 ]
Firearms using gunpowder could be loaded using a small scoop or charge cup to determine the correct amount for each shot. Some early smokeless propellants called bulk propellants were designed for a similar volume and reaction rate as gunpowder, but most modern smokeless powders have improved efficiency offering more energy from smaller charges. [1]
Trema orientale (sometimes Trema orientalis) is a species of flowering tree in the hemp family, Cannabaceae. [2] [4] [5] [6] It is known by many common names, including charcoal-tree, [6] Indian charcoal-tree, [6] pigeon wood, [7] Oriental trema, [8] and in Hawaii, where it has become naturalized, gunpowder tree, [9] or nalita. [10]
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Gunpowder is very easily ignited by static electricity or lightning strikes, and most powder mills experienced occasional accidental explosions. Powder mill explosions typically destroyed an entire building and killed those working in the vicinity of the building. Explosions might throw flaming debris which could ignite other buildings.