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[36] [34] During pregnancy the placenta concentrates B 12, so that newborn infants have a higher serum concentration than their mothers. [33] What the mother-to-be consumes during the pregnancy is more important than her liver tissue stores, as it is recently absorbed vitamin content that more effectively reaches the placenta.
Prenatal nutrition addresses nutrient recommendations before and during pregnancy. Nutrition and weight management before and during pregnancy has a profound effect on the development of infants. This is a rather critical time for healthy development since infants rely heavily on maternal stores and nutrient for optimal growth and health ...
The child's growth is divided into four key stages: (1) pregnancy, from conception to birth; (2) breastfeeding, from birth to six months; (3) the introduction of solid foods, from six to 12 months; and (4) the transition to a family diet after 12 months, with each stage requiring specific nutritional considerations for optimal development.
During pregnancy the plasma volume increases by 40-50% and the red blood cell volume increases only by 20–30%. [22] These changes occur mostly in the second trimester and prior to 32 weeks gestation. [24] Due to dilution, the net result is a decrease in hematocrit or hemoglobin, which are measures of red blood cell concentration.
[77] The European Food Safety Authority set the Adequate Intake at 1.5 micrograms for infants, 4 micrograms for children and adults, and 4.5 and 5 micrograms during pregnancy and nursing. [78] These amounts can be obtained by eating B 12 fortified foods, which include some common breakfast cereals, plant milks, and meat analogues, as well as ...
High levels of prolactin during pregnancy and breastfeeding also increase insulin resistance, increase growth factor levels (IGF-1) and modify lipid metabolism in preparation for breastfeeding. During lactation, prolactin is the main factor maintaining tight junctions of the ductal epithelium and regulating milk production through osmotic balance.
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Prolactin has a wide variety of effects. It stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk (): increased serum concentrations of prolactin during pregnancy cause enlargement of the mammary glands and prepare for milk production, which normally starts when levels of progesterone fall by the end of pregnancy and a suckling stimulus is present.
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