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The tapeworm is sensitive to temperature, in addition the species is thermophilic; lower temperatures interfere and delay development and completion of the life cycle. The eggs are released into the water through the fish fecal material, where they hatch into free-swimming hexacanth (six-hooked) larvae.
Diphyllobothrium is a genus of tapeworms which can cause diphyllobothriasis in humans through consumption of raw or undercooked fish. The principal species causing diphyllobothriasis is D. latum, known as the broad or fish tapeworm, or broad fish tapeworm. D. latum is a pseudophyllid cestode that infects fish and mammals.
Inset 6 shows the tapeworm's whole body, in which the scolex is the tiny, round tip in the top left corner, and a mature proglottid has just detached. [19] Life cycle of Diphyllobothrium latum relies on at least three hosts, crustaceans, fish, and humans. Other fish-eating mammals like bears can equally serve as definitive hosts. [20]
Ligula intestinalis is a tapeworm of fish, fish-eating birds and copepods, with species from each group featuring in its complex life cycle. [1] It is a parasite that changes its intermediate host's behavior to become more vulnerable to its predators.
Humans become infected by eating raw, undercooked, or marinated fish acting as a second intermediate or paratenic host harboring metacestodes or plerocercoid larvae. [14] Clinical symptoms are due to the large size of the tapeworm, which often reaches a length exceeding 15 m (49 ft).
The predatory bird is the next host for the parasite in the next stage of its life cycle. [12] Specifically, the tapeworm Schistocephalus solidus turns infected threespine stickleback white, and then makes them more buoyant so that they splash along at the surface of the water, becoming easy to see and easy to catch for a passing bird. [13]
Fishing mortality: the removal of fish from the stock due to fishing activities using any fishing gear. [1] It is denoted by (F) in fisheries models. (M) and (F) are additive instantaneous rates that sum up to (Z), the instantaneous total mortality coefficient; that is, Z=M+F. [2] These rates are usually calculated on an annual basis.
Life cycle of Schistocephalus solidus. It parasitizes fish and fish-eating water birds. The fish-eating water bird is the definitive host, and reproduction occurs in the bird's intestine. Eggs of the tapeworm are passed with the bird's feces and hatch in the water, where the first larval stage, the coracidium, is produced.