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differential element of volume V enclosed by surface S: cubic meter (m 3) electric field: newton per coulomb (N⋅C −1), or equivalently, volt per meter (V⋅m −1) energy: joule (J) Young's modulus: pascal (Pa) or newton per square meter (N/m 2) eccentricity: unitless
The equation PV = nRT represents the ideal gas law, where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume, n is the number of moles, R is the universal gas constant, and T is the temperature. Gibbs's free energy formula
[1] [2] [3] In classical mechanics for instance, in the action formulation, extremal solutions to the variational principle are on shell and the Euler–Lagrange equations give the on-shell equations. Noether's theorem regarding differentiable symmetries of physical action and conservation laws is another on-shell theorem.
Newton's laws are often stated in terms of point or particle masses, that is, bodies whose volume is negligible. This is a reasonable approximation for real bodies when the motion of internal parts can be neglected, and when the separation between bodies is much larger than the size of each.
In physics, there are equations in every field to relate physical quantities to each other and perform calculations. Entire handbooks of equations can only summarize most of the full subject, else are highly specialized within a certain field. Physics is derived of formulae only.
There are two main descriptions of motion: dynamics and kinematics.Dynamics is general, since the momenta, forces and energy of the particles are taken into account. In this instance, sometimes the term dynamics refers to the differential equations that the system satisfies (e.g., Newton's second law or Euler–Lagrange equations), and sometimes to the solutions to those equations.
The volume charge density ρ is the amount of charge per unit volume (cube), surface charge density σ is amount per unit surface area (circle) with outward unit normal nĚ‚, d is the dipole moment between two point charges, the volume density of these is the polarization density P.
kg m s −1: M L T −1: Angular momentum about a position point r 0, L, J, S = Most of the time we can set r 0 = 0 if particles are orbiting about axes intersecting at a common point. kg m 2 s −1: M L 2 T −1: Moment of a force about a position point r 0, Torque. τ, M