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The underlying cancer is most often gastric adenocarcinoma [1]: 63 [2] [3] but also with breast cancer, bladder cancer, hepatobiliary cancer, ovarian cancer, uterine cancer, [4] prostate cancer [citation needed], lung cancer [5] and cervical cancer. [6] Other associated underlying malignancies include squamous cell carcinomas and lymphomas. [7]
[3] [4] Cancer can be difficult to diagnose because its signs and symptoms are often nonspecific, meaning they may be general phenomena that do not point directly to a specific disease process. [5] In medicine, a sign is an objective piece of data that can be measured or observed, as in a high body temperature (fever), a rash, or a bruise. [6]
Prostate cancer is a major topic of ongoing research. From 2016–2020, over $1.26 billion was invested in prostate cancer research, representing around 5% of global cancer research funds. [122] This places prostate cancer 10th among 18 common cancer types in funding per cancer death, and 9th in funding per disability-adjusted life year lost. [123]
In men aged 55–69 who have been counseled on the known harms and potential benefits of prostate cancer screening, the U.S. Preventive Service Task Force May 2018 statement states, "The use of digital rectal examination as a screening modality is not recommended because there is a lack of evidence on the benefits."
In prostate cancer, PNI in needle biopsies is poor prognosticator; [2] however, in prostatectomy specimens it is unclear whether it carries a worse prognosis. [4]In one study, PNI was found in approximately 90% of radical prostatectomy specimens, and PNI outside of the prostate, especially, was associated with a poorer prognosis. [5]
Apalutamide was first described in 2007, and was approved for the treatment of prostate cancer in February 2018. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 15 ] It is the first medication to be approved specifically for the treatment of non-metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer.
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