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stands for muscle density; PCSA relates the force produced by the muscle to the summation of the forces produced along the force generating axis of each muscle fiber and is largely determined by the pennation angle. [3] [8] Fiber length is also a key variable in muscle anatomy.
A better estimate is provided by the total area of the cross-sections perpendicular to the muscle fibers (green lines in figure 1). This measure is known as the physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), and is commonly calculated and defined by the following formula, developed in 1975 by Alexander and Vernon: [4] [5] [6]
Onymacris unguicularis beetle with landmarks for morphometric analysis. In landmark-based geometric morphometrics, the spatial information missing from traditional morphometrics is contained in the data, because the data are coordinates of landmarks: discrete anatomical loci that are arguably homologous in all individuals in the analysis (i.e. they can be regarded as the "same" point in each ...
A wide variety of body composition measurement methods exist. The gold standard measurement technique for the 4-compartment model consists of a weight measurement, body density measurement using hydrostatic weighing or air displacement plethysmography, total body water calculation using isotope dilution analysis, and mineral content measurement by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). [1]
Log-log transformation places numbers into a geometric domain so that proportional deviations are represented consistently, independent of the scale and units of measurement. In biology, this is appropriate because many biological phenomena (e.g., growth, reproduction, metabolism, sensation) are fundamentally multiplicative. [22]
For example, on typical radiographs, bones look white or light gray (radiopaque), whereas muscle and skin look black or dark gray, being mostly invisible (radiolucent). Though the term radiodensity is more commonly used in the context of qualitative comparison, radiodensity can also be quantified according to the Hounsfield scale , a principle ...
The mid-upper arm muscle circumference (MUAMC) is an estimation of the circumference of the bone and muscle portions of the upper arm. It is derived from the MUAC and the TSF by accounting for the thickness of the subcutaneous fat that surrounds the muscle, using the following formula, with the MUAC and TSF values measured in millimetres: [2]
The annular shape of the LV wall will change and become thicker (radial strain) with a smaller inner circle (circumferential strain). In a normal heart, the circumferential strain or positives negative as measured from end-diastole. Note that: Strain has a sign: A contraction of a muscle fiber yields a negative strain measurement along the ...