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In atomic, molecular, and optical physics, above-threshold ionization (ATI) is a multi-photon effect where an atom is ionized with more than the energetically required number of photons. [1] It was first observed in 1979 by Pierre Agostini and colleagues in xenon gas.
If the group is of the [d] or [f], type, an amount of 1.00 for each electron "closer" to the nucleus than the group. This includes both i) electrons with a smaller principal quantum number than n and ii) electrons with principal quantum number n and a smaller azimuthal quantum number l. In tabular form, the rules are summarized as:
In fracture mechanics, the energy release rate, , is the rate at which energy is transformed as a material undergoes fracture.Mathematically, the energy release rate is expressed as the decrease in total potential energy per increase in fracture surface area, [1] [2] and is thus expressed in terms of energy per unit area.
The CLTD/CLF/SCL (cooling load temperature difference/cooling load factor/solar cooling load factor) cooling load calculation method was first introduced in the 1979 ASHRAE Cooling and Heating Load Manual (GRP-158) [1] The CLTD/CLF/SCL Method is regarded as a reasonably accurate approximation of the total heat gains through a building envelope ...
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Compressibility factor values are usually obtained by calculation from equations of state (EOS), such as the virial equation which take compound-specific empirical constants as input. For a gas that is a mixture of two or more pure gases (air or natural gas, for example), the gas composition must be known before compressibility can be calculated.
In radiometry, radiosity is the radiant flux leaving (emitted, reflected and transmitted by) a surface per unit area, and spectral radiosity is the radiosity of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength, depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength. [1]
The response factor can be expressed on a molar, volume or mass [1] basis. Where the true amount of sample and standard are equal: = where A is the signal (e.g. peak area) and the subscript i indicates the sample and the subscript st indicates the standard. [2]