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Reproduction of an early electron microscope constructed by Ernst Ruska in the 1930s. Many developments laid the groundwork of the electron optics used in microscopes. [2] One significant step was the work of Hertz in 1883 [3] who made a cathode-ray tube with electrostatic and magnetic deflection, demonstrating manipulation of the direction of an electron beam.
The Cambridge International General Certificate of Education: Advanced Level (formally also known as the University of Cambridge International General Certificate of Education: Advanced Level ; informally also known as International (GCE) A-Level(s), Cambridge (GCE) A-Level(s) or Cambridge International (GCE) AS and A Level) [1] [2] is an international school-leaving qualification for ...
Some of the major unsolved problems in physics are theoretical, meaning that existing theories seem incapable of explaining a certain observed phenomenon or experimental result. The others are experimental, meaning that there is a difficulty in creating an experiment to test a proposed theory or investigate a phenomenon in greater detail.
An account of the early history of scanning electron microscopy has been presented by McMullan. [2] [3] Although Max Knoll produced a photo with a 50 mm object-field-width showing channeling contrast by the use of an electron beam scanner, [4] it was Manfred von Ardenne who in 1937 invented [5] a microscope with high resolution by scanning a very small raster with a demagnified and finely ...
Quantum mechanics. In physics, the observer effect is the disturbance of an observed system by the act of observation. [1][2] This is often the result of utilising instruments that, by necessity, alter the state of what they measure in some manner. A common example is checking the pressure in an automobile tire, which causes some of the air to ...
Homogeneity (physics) In physics, a homogeneous material or system has the same properties at every point; it is uniform without irregularities. [1][2] A uniform electric field (which has the same strength and the same direction at each point) would be compatible with homogeneity (all points experience the same physics).
The A-level (Advanced Level) is a subject-based qualification conferred as part of the General Certificate of Education, as well as a school leaving qualification offered by the educational bodies in the United Kingdom and the educational authorities of British Crown dependencies to students completing secondary or pre-university education. [1]
Advancing Physics. Advancing Physics is an A-level physics course examined by OCR which was developed in association with the Institute of Physics (IOP) with assessment through written examinations and teacher-assessed coursework. It may also be referred to Physics 'B' to distinguish it from OCR's other A-Level Physics course.