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Matter organizes into various phases or states of matter depending on its constituents and external factors like pressure and temperature. In common temperatures and pressures, atoms form the three classical states of matter: solid , liquid and gas .
Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different states of matter. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate) and the quark–gluon plasma are examples. In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas.
2000 – CERN announced quark-gluon plasma, a new phase of matter. [28] 2023 – Physicists from US and China discovered a new state of matter called the chiral bose-liquid state [29] 2024 – Harvard researchers working with Quantinuum announced a new phase of matter non-Abelian topological order [30]
Phase transitions commonly refer to when a substance transforms between one of the four states of matter to another. At the phase transition point for a substance, for instance the boiling point, the two phases involved - liquid and vapor, have identical free energies and therefore are equally likely to exist.
In physics and chemistry, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equation relating state variables, which describe the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions, such as pressure, volume, temperature, or internal energy. [1] Most modern equations of state are formulated in the Helmholtz free energy.
In this definition, the critical pressure is zero: the true ground state of matter is always quark matter. The nuclei that we see in the matter around us, which are droplets of nuclear matter, are actually metastable , and given enough time (or the right external stimulus) would decay into droplets of strange matter, i.e. strangelets .
In physics, topological order [1] is a kind of order in the zero-temperature phase of matter (also known as quantum matter). Macroscopically, topological order is defined and described by robust ground state degeneracy [2] and quantized non-abelian geometric phases of degenerate ground states. [1]
Most directly, it can be identified by a suitable set of state variables. Less directly, it can be described by a suitable set of quantities that includes state variables and state functions. The primary or original identification of the thermodynamic state of a body of matter is by directly measurable ordinary physical quantities.