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The spatial arrangement of the oxygen atoms determines clay's structure. [19] Half of the weight of clay is oxygen, but on a volume basis oxygen is ninety percent. [ 20 ] The layers of clay are sometimes held together through hydrogen bonds , sodium or potassium bridges and as a result will swell less in the presence of water. [ 21 ]
Soil texture determines total volume of the smallest pores; [56] clay soils have smaller pores, but more total pore space than sands, [57] despite a much lower permeability. [58] Soil structure has a strong influence on the larger pores that affect soil aeration , water infiltration and drainage . [ 59 ]
The particle size distribution of a soil, its texture, determines many of the properties of that soil, in particular hydraulic conductivity and water potential, [85] but the mineralogy of those particles can strongly modify those properties. The mineralogy of the finest soil particles, clay, is especially important.
Emissivity of a planet is determined by the nature of its surface and atmosphere. [11] Due to differences in emissivity, this infrared picture of a cold beer can shows vastly different (and incorrect) temperature values depending on the surface material. Reflections (like on the blank end of the can and the countertop) make accurate ...
Carbon content in iron was not implicated as the reason for the differences in properties of wrought iron, cast iron, and steel until the 18th century. [ 92 ] Since iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it also became a major structural material following the building of the innovative first iron bridge in 1778.
Iron reaches the atmosphere through volcanism, [8] aeolian activity, [9] and some via combustion by humans. In the Anthropocene, iron is removed from mines in the crust and a portion re-deposited in waste repositories. [4] [6] The iron cycle (Fe) is the biogeochemical cycle of iron through the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and lithosphere.
Although the temperature may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C. [24] The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere.
Earth and atmosphere structure. Earth's outer core is a fluid layer about 2,260 km (1,400 mi) thick, composed of mostly iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle.