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When forces are removed, the lattice goes back to the original lower energy state. For rubbers and other polymers , elasticity is caused by the stretching of polymer chains when forces are applied. Hooke's law states that the force required to deform elastic objects should be directly proportional to the distance of deformation, regardless of ...
The first constitutive equation (constitutive law) was developed by Robert Hooke and is known as Hooke's law.It deals with the case of linear elastic materials.Following this discovery, this type of equation, often called a "stress-strain relation" in this example, but also called a "constitutive assumption" or an "equation of state" was commonly used.
The strength of materials is determined using various methods of calculating the stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. The methods employed to predict the response of a structure under loading and its susceptibility to various failure modes takes into account the properties of the materials such as its yield strength, ultimate strength, Young's modulus ...
An important contribution for physically based equations of state is the statistical associating fluid theory (SAFT) that contributes the Helmholtz energy that describes the association (a.k.a. hydrogen bonding) in fluids, which can also be applied for modelling chain formation (in the limit of infinite association strength). The SAFT equation ...
Viscoelastic materials, such as amorphous polymers, semicrystalline polymers, biopolymers and even the living tissue and cells, [4] can be modeled in order to determine their stress and strain or force and displacement interactions as well as their temporal dependencies.
The relative activity of a species i, denoted a i, is defined [4] [5] as: = where μ i is the (molar) chemical potential of the species i under the conditions of interest, μ o i is the (molar) chemical potential of that species under some defined set of standard conditions, R is the gas constant, T is the thermodynamic temperature and e is the exponential constant.
The relative strength of this force is a measure of the fluid's viscosity. In a general parallel flow, the shear stress is proportional to the gradient of the velocity. In materials science and engineering , there is often interest in understanding the forces or stresses involved in the deformation of a material.
Since the additional particles involved beyond the single force carrier approximation are always virtual, i.e. transient quantum field fluctuations, one understands why the running of a coupling is a genuine quantum and relativistic phenomenon, namely an effect of the high-order Feynman diagrams on the strength of the force.