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Metabolic component: The third line of defense is slow, best measured by the base excess, [9] and mostly depends on the renal system which can add or remove bicarbonate ions (HCO − 3) to or from the ECF. [5] Bicarbonate ions are derived from metabolic carbon dioxide which is enzymatically converted to carbonic acid in the renal tubular cells.
Chemical defense is a strategy employed by many organisms to avoid consumption by producing toxic or repellent metabolites or chemical warnings which incite defensive behavioral changes. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The production of defensive chemicals occurs in plants, fungi, and bacteria, as well as invertebrate and vertebrate animals.
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In the first line of defense, inhaled bacteria are trapped by mucus and are swept toward the pharynx and are swallowed. [1] Bacteria which penetrate the mucous layer are dealt with a second line of defense which includes antimicrobial peptides that are secreted by the surface epithelium of the respiratory tract which kill many strains of ...
There are three broad classification categories: defence genes, signalling pathway genes and rerouting genes. [28] The transcription of defensive gene produces either proteins that are directly involved in plant defence such as proteinase inhibitors or are enzymes that are essential for the production of such proteins.
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Although its main role lies in support and muscle attachment, when extensively hardened by the cross-linking of proteins and chitin, or sclerotized, the cuticle acts as a first line of defense. [5] Additional physical defenses include modified mandibles, horns, and spines on the tibia and femur.
Complement proteins are proteins that play a role in the non-specific immune responses alongside these non-specific immune cells to make up the first line of immune defense. [4] The non-specific immune response is an immediate antigen-independent response, however it is not antigen-specific. Non-specific immunity results in no immunologic memory.