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Allen's rule - Hare and its ears on the Earth [1]. Allen's rule is an ecogeographical rule formulated by Joel Asaph Allen in 1877, [2] [3] broadly stating that animals adapted to cold climates have shorter and thicker limbs and bodily appendages than animals adapted to warm climates.
Bergmann's rule - Penguins on the Earth (mass m, height h) [1] Bergmann's rule is an ecogeographical rule that states that, within a broadly distributed taxonomic clade, populations and species of larger size are found in colder environments, while populations and species of smaller size are found in warmer regions.
Inside the troposphere, the CO 2 drops with altitude approximately exponentially, with a typical length of 6.3 km; this means that the density at height y is approximately proportional to exp(-y/6.3 km), and it goes down to 37% at 6.3 km, and to 17% at 11 km. Higher through the tropopause, density continues dropping exponentially, albeit faster ...
The five components of the climate system all interact. They are the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere. [1]: 1451 Earth's climate system is a complex system with five interacting components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things).
Climate models divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid and apply differential equations to each grid. The equations are based on the basic laws of physics, fluid motion, and chemistry. Numerical climate models (or climate system models) are mathematical models that can simulate the interactions of important drivers of climate.
Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or "forcing mechanisms". [9] These include processes such as variations in solar radiation, variations in the Earth's orbit, variations in the albedo or reflectivity of the continents, atmosphere, and oceans, mountain-building and continental drift and changes in greenhouse gas ...
The authors also found that the change "cannot be explained as natural variations but are driven by anthropogenic factors". [76] A 2018 study provides detailed maps for present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution. [77]
Over the years, the definitions of climate variability and the related term climate change have shifted. While the term climate change now implies change that is both long-term and of human causation, in the 1960s the word climate change was used for what we now describe as climate variability, that is, climatic inconsistencies and anomalies. [28]