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The 2, 8, and 9 resemble Arabic numerals more than Eastern Arabic numerals or Indian numerals. Leonardo Fibonacci was a Pisan mathematician who had studied in the Pisan trading colony of Bugia , in what is now Algeria , [ 15 ] and he endeavored to promote the numeral system in Europe with his 1202 book Liber Abaci :
12th century — Indian numerals have been modified by Persian mathematicians al-Khwārizmī to form the modern Arabic numerals (used universally in the modern world.) 12th century — the Arabic numerals reach Europe through the Arabs. 1202 — Leonardo Fibonacci demonstrates the utility of Hindu–Arabic numeral system in his Book of the Abacus.
The Hindu–Arabic numeral system is a decimal place-value numeral system that uses a zero glyph as in "205". [1]Its glyphs are descended from the Indian Brahmi numerals.The full system emerged by the 8th to 9th centuries, and is first described outside India in Al-Khwarizmi's On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (ca. 825), and second Al-Kindi's four-volume work On the Use of the Indian ...
Number systems have progressed from the use of fingers and tally marks, perhaps more than 40,000 years ago, to the use of sets of glyphs able to represent any conceivable number efficiently. The earliest known unambiguous notations for numbers emerged in Mesopotamia about 5000 or 6000 years ago.
These numerals were gradually adopted in Europe starting around the 10th century, probably transmitted by Arab merchants; [6] medieval and Renaissance European mathematicians generally recognized them as Indian in origin, [7] however a few influential sources credited them to the Arabs, and they eventually came to be generally known as "Arabic ...
Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers.
Arabic script reached a climax in aesthetics and geographic spread under the Abbasid Caliphate. [13] In this period, Ibn al-Bawwab and Ibn Muqla had the most influence on the standardization of Arabic script. [13] They were associated with al-khatt al-mansūb (الخط المنسوب), or "proportioned script." [17] [18]
The original numerals were very similar to the modern ones, even down to the glyphs used to represent digits. [1] The digits of the Maya numeral system. By the 13th century, Western Arabic numerals were accepted in European mathematical circles (Fibonacci used them in his Liber Abaci). They began to enter common use in the 15th century. [3]