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The method even gained some literary fame due to the Robert Harris novel Enigma. In the 1990s, Geoffrey Sampson worked with William A. Gale of AT&T to create and implement a simplified and easier-to-use variant of the Good–Turing method [ 3 ] [ 4 ] described below.
The Good–Toulmin (GT) estimator was developed by Good and Toulmin in 1953. [4] The estimate of the unseen species based on the Good–Toulmin estimator is given by U GT ≜ U GT ( X n , t ) ≜ − ∑ i = 1 ∞ ( − t ) i φ i . {\displaystyle U^{\text{GT}}\triangleq U^{\text{GT}}(X^{n},t)\triangleq -\sum _{i=1}^{\infty }(-t)^{i}\varphi _{i}.}
Toulmin argumentation framework example. As demonstrated in Toulmin’s argumentation framework, the grounds of an assumption require warrant and backing to legitimize the claim and prove the soundness of the conclusion. The framework involves a claim, grounds, warrant, qualifier, rebuttal, and backing. The initial claim of an argument is the ...
Stephen Edelston Toulmin (/ ˈ t uː l m ɪ n /; 25 March 1922 – 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein , Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning .
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A Toulmin argument diagram, redrawn from his 1959 Uses of Argument A generalised Toulmin diagram. Stephen Toulmin, in his groundbreaking and influential 1958 book The Uses of Argument, [22] identified several elements to an argument which have been generalized. The Toulmin diagram is widely used in educational critical teaching.
Software crack illustration. Software cracking (known as "breaking" mostly in the 1980s [1]) is an act of removing copy protection from a software. [2] Copy protection can be removed by applying a specific crack. A crack can mean any tool that enables breaking software protection, a stolen product key, or guessed password. Cracking software ...
One criticism of the Toulmin model is that it does not fully consider the use of questions in argumentation. [25] The Toulmin model assumes that an argument starts with a fact or claim and ends with a conclusion, but ignores an argument's underlying questions.