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Long-term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage, [53] [54] but, in humans with ADHD, long-term use of pharmaceutical amphetamines at therapeutic doses appears to improve brain development and nerve growth.
Drugs in the class of amphetamines, or substituted amphetamines, are known to induce "amphetamine psychosis" typically when chronically abused or used in high doses. [8] In an Australian study of 309 active methamphetamine users, 18% had experienced a clinical level psychosis in the past year. [9]
At high doses, prescription amphetamines, used to treat ADHD could increase a person’s risk of psychosis. Image credit: visualspace/Getty Images.
High levels of NE in the brain account for most of the profound effects of amphetamines, including alertness and anorectic, locomotor and sympathomimetic effects. [29] However, the effects that amphetamines have on the brain are slower but last longer than the effects cocaine has on the brain. [29]
Treatment for amphetamines is growing at extremely high rates around the world. [15] Psychostimulants that increase dopamine and mimic the effects of substituted amphetamines, but with lower abuse liability, could theoretically be used as replacement therapy in amphetamine dependence. [ 8 ]
MDA is a substituted methylenedioxylated phenethylamine and amphetamine derivative. In relation to other phenethylamines and amphetamines, it is the 3,4-methylenedioxy, α-methyl derivative of β-phenylethylamine, the 3,4-methylenedioxy derivative of amphetamine, and the N-desmethyl derivative of MDMA.
Amphetamine, which is a racemic mixture of dextroamphetamine and levoamphetamine, was first discovered in 1887, shortly after the isolation of ephedrine. [65] [60] However, it was not until 1927 that amphetamine was synthesized by Gordon Alles and was studied by him in animals and humans. [10]
4-Hydroxyphenylacetone is the para-hydroxy analog of phenylacetone, an inactive metabolite of amphetamine in humans. [1] [2] When it occurs as a metabolite of amphetamine, it is produced directly from the inactive metabolite phenylacetone. [1] [3]