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But holding a passport and having a citizenship are in theory completely different notions. Although practically, 99.9% of the passport are issued by the country of citizenship, there are no international laws to my knowledge which prevent a country to issue a passport to non-citizen, (although some local legislation may prevent doing so.)
Definition of Country of Citizenship A country of citizenship is any country where you are considered to be a citizen. A person usually has one citizenship, but in some situations, they can have two citizenships or no citizenships. Some people have renounced (= given up) the citizenship of the country of their birth so they could become a citizen of another country. For example, a person born ...
TPS is temporary protected status -- a refugee-like status for those who cannot return to their country of citizenship. The current version of application form , no longer even asks for "country of residence," presumably because it was confusing, but instead asks for "countries of residence before entering the US" and then "I entered on the US ...
Note the word 'usual'. If you're on a tourist visa in another country for just 6 months, that's not really where you NORMALLY reside. You're considered a visitor in that country, not a resident. In this case it's likely to be your country of citizenship, if that's where you usually live when you're not travelling on this tourist visa.
For example, one of the elements of the definition of "refugee" under the convention is is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of ...
In your case, Country A is the issuing country. Being in country B when you renewed your passport does not make you citizen of Country B. Passport issue/renewal is a very complicated process. In your case Country B is not involved in any of the process of verifying any of your documents, or legality.
No mention about residency, so unless the applicant has dual-citizenship, the answer should be "No" to both. The only place where you put the place of residence is in the contact information. I live outside of my home country, too, and have used ESTA a couple times when traveling from here without problems.
Some airlines (for example American Airlines) ask for "country of residence" during the booking process. However, the word "residence" has many different definitions in different contexts (i.e. immigration vs. de facto). During the booking process, what definition do airlines expect you to use?
What is the difference between "Country of Issue" and "Country of Citizenship" of a passport? and did a fair bit of googling, but was not able to find any definitive information that distinguished between " What is the Issuing Authority ?", which I already know the answer to, and " Passport issued in ", which is the question the airline is asking.
Now, by definition, stateless people don't have a citizenship and refugees cannot avail themselves of the protection of their country of citizenship (and in particular they cannot apply for a passport, even if they are still citizens) so in both cases the travel document is issued by the state where they reside, which is not their country of ...