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A higher official (embedsmand) in Denmark-Norway was by definition an official who had been appointed directly by the King, as opposed to lower officials.They included not only higher central government officials, but also all priests of the state church, all judges, lawyers (until the mid 19th century), county governors, university professors, military commissioned officers and other groups.
Civil service reform in the United States was a major issue in the late 19th century at the national level, and in the early 20th century at the state level. Proponents denounced the distribution of government offices—the "spoils"—by the winners of elections to their supporters as corrupt and inefficient.
In politics and government, a spoils system (also known as a patronage system) is a practice in which a political party, after winning an election, gives government jobs to its supporters, friends , and relatives as a reward for working toward victory, and as an incentive to keep working for the party.
It is a system in which only a small part of the population represents the government; "certain men distinguished from the rest". [8] Modern depictions of aristocracy tend to regard it not as the ancient Greek concept of rule by the best, but more as an oligarchy or plutocracy—rule by the few or the wealthy. [citation needed]
In the early 19th century, government jobs were held at the pleasure of the president—a person could be fired at any time. The spoils system meant that jobs were used to support the political parties. This was changed in slow stages by the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 and subsequent laws. By 1909, almost two-thirds of the U.S ...
In the first decade of the 19th century, American shipping grew. During the Napoleonic Wars, rival nations Britain and France targeted neutral American shipping as a means to disrupt the trade of the other nation. American merchantmen who were trading with "enemy nations" were seized as contraband of war by European navies.
Napoleon, a typical great man, said to have created the "Napoleonic" era through his military and political genius. The great man theory is an approach to the study of history popularised in the 19th century according to which history can be largely explained by the impact of great men, or heroes: highly influential and unique individuals who, due to their natural attributes, such as superior ...
The 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America and North America. [2] In this period, the dominant ideological opponent of classical liberalism was conservatism , but liberalism later survived major ideological challenges from new opponents, such as fascism and communism .