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Since hemagglutinin is the major surface protein of the influenza A virus and is essential to the entry process, it is the primary target of neutralizing antibodies. [citation needed] These antibodies against flu have been found to act by two different mechanisms, mirroring the dual functions of hemagglutinin:
HA codes for hemagglutinin, which is an antigenic glycoprotein found on the surface of the influenza viruses and is responsible for binding the virus to the cell that is being infected. Hemagglutinin forms spikes at the surface of flu viruses that function to attach viruses to cells. This attachment is required for efficient transfer of flu ...
Influenza viruses A and B are estimated to have diverged from a single ancestor around 4,000 years ago, while the ancestor of influenza viruses A and B and the ancestor of influenza virus C are estimated to have diverged from a common ancestor around 8,000 years ago. [40] Outbreaks of influenza-like disease can be found throughout recorded history.
The envelope comprises a lipid bilayer membrane incorporating HA and NA (or HEF [26]) proteins extending outward from its exterior surface. HA and HEF [26] proteins have a distinct "head" and "stalk" structure. M2 proteins form proton channels through the viral envelope that are required for viral entry and exit. Influenza B viruses contain a ...
Viral neuraminidase cleaves terminal sialic acid residues from glycan structures on the surface of the infected cell. This promotes the release of progeny viruses and the spread of the virus from the host cell to uninfected surrounding cells. Neuraminidase also cleaves sialic acid residues from viral proteins, preventing aggregation of viruses.
Influenza A viruses are further classified, based on the viral surface proteins hemagglutinin (HA or H) and neuraminidase (NA or N). 18 HA subtypes (or serotypes) and 11 NA subtypes of influenza A virus have been isolated in nature. Among these, the HA subtype 1-16 and NA subtype 1-9 are found in wild waterfowl and shorebirds and the HA ...
The 2024–25 flu shot doesn’t prevent H5N1 bird flu but could play a pivotal role in preventing a pandemic. Bird flu could merge with seasonal flu to make mutated virus that could spread among ...
The M1 protein is a matrix protein of the influenza virus. It forms a coat inside the viral envelope. This is a bifunctional membrane/RNA-binding protein that mediates the encapsidation of nucleoprotein cores into the membrane envelope. It is therefore required that M1 binds both membrane and RNA simultaneously. [1] The M1 protein binds to the ...