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These cracks then gradually get larger and turn into caves. If a cave wears through a headland, an arch forms. Further erosion causes the arch to collapse, leaving the pillar of hard rock standing away from the coast, the stack. Eventually, erosion will cause the stack to collapse, leaving a stump.
Wave erosion Sea cliffs in sandstone and mudstone with a raised shore platform. 42°05′31″S 171°20′20″E / 42.09194°S 171.33889°E / -42.09194; 171
Picture of the Wave Rock, a landmark flared slope in Western Australia. A flared slope is a landform consisting in a rock-wall with a smooth transition into a concavity at the foot zone. Flared slopes form due to various weathering patterns that are more effective at the regolith or soil-covered base of rock walls.
Subsequent wave erosion along uplifted portions of the coastline produces an inset wave cut platform and terrace riser below the abandoned marine terrace surface that formed initially at sea level. Uplift can therefore lead to a sequence of marine terraces at a few distinct elevations along the coast.
Coastal erosion may be caused by hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion by wind and water, and other forces, natural or unnatural. [3] On non-rocky coasts, coastal erosion results in rock formations in areas where the coastline contains rock layers or fracture zones with varying resistance to erosion.
Erosion and changes in the form of river banks may be measured by inserting metal rods into the bank and marking the position of the bank surface along the rods at different times. [23] Thermal erosion is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to moving water. [24] It can occur both along rivers and at the coast.
The parameter used to describe breaking wave types on beaches; or wave run-up on – and reflection by – beaches, breakwaters and dikes. [4] [5] [6] Iribarren Number (ξ 0) as a function of wave height with constant beach steepness of 7.5 degrees. Iribarren's work was further developed by Jurjen Battjes in 1974, who named the parameter after ...
Furthermore, shore platforms are formed by denudation and marine-built terraces arise from accumulations of materials removed by shore erosion. [2] Thus, a marine terrace can be formed by both erosion and accumulation. However, there is an ongoing debate about the roles of wave erosion and weathering in the formation of shore platforms. [10]