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r it is return to stock i in period t r f is the risk free rate (i.e. the interest rate on treasury bills) r mt is the return to the market portfolio in period t is the stock's alpha, or abnormal return is the stock's beta, or responsiveness to the market return
Under the assumption of normality of returns, an active risk of x per cent would mean that approximately 2/3 of the portfolio's active returns (one standard deviation from the mean) can be expected to fall between +x and -x per cent of the mean excess return and about 95% of the portfolio's active returns (two standard deviations from the mean) can be expected to fall between +2x and -2x per ...
A risk premium is a measure of excess return that is required by an individual to compensate being subjected to an increased level of risk. [1] It is used widely in finance and economics, the general definition being the expected risky return less the risk-free return, as demonstrated by the formula below. [2]
It measures the returns of the portfolio, adjusted for the risk of the portfolio relative to that of some benchmark (e.g., the market). We can interpret the measure as the difference between the scaled excess return of our portfolio P and that of the market, where the scaled portfolio has the same volatility as the market.
The t-statistic will equal the Sharpe Ratio times the square root of T (the number of returns used for the calculation). The ex-post Sharpe ratio uses the same equation as the one above but with realized returns of the asset and benchmark rather than expected returns; see the second example below.
Variance analysis can be carried out for both costs and revenues. Variance analysis is usually associated with explaining the difference (or variance) between actual costs and the standard costs allowed for the good output. For example, the difference in materials costs can be divided into a materials price variance and a materials usage variance.
The variance risk premium can also be analysed from the perspective of asset allocation. Carr and Wu (2009) examines whether the excess returns of selling or buying variance swaps can be explained using common factor models such as the CAPM model and the Fama-French factors, which include returns of different segments of stocks on the market ...
An investor either maximizes their portfolio return for a given level of risk or minimizes their risk for a given return. [2] An investor is rational in nature. To choose the best portfolio from a number of possible portfolios, each with different return and risk, two separate decisions are to be made, detailed in the below sections: