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  2. Modulo - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulo

    [1] For example, the expression "5 mod 2" evaluates to 1, because 5 divided by 2 has a quotient of 2 and a remainder of 1, while "9 mod 3" would evaluate to 0, because 9 divided by 3 has a quotient of 3 and a remainder of 0. Although typically performed with a and n both being integers, many computing systems now allow other types of numeric ...

  3. Kaluza–Klein theory - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaluza–Klein_theory

    e. In physics, Kaluza–Klein theory (KK theory) is a classical unified field theory of gravitation and electromagnetism built around the idea of a fifth dimension beyond the common 4D of space and time and considered an important precursor to string theory. In their setup, the vacuum has the usual 3 dimensions of space and one dimension of ...

  4. Five-dimensional space - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-dimensional_space

    A 2D orthogonal projection of a 5-cube. A five-dimensional space is a space with five dimensions. In mathematics, a sequence of N numbers can represent a location in an N -dimensional space. If interpreted physically, that is one more than the usual three spatial dimensions and the fourth dimension of time used in relativistic physics.

  5. Modular arithmetic - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_arithmetic

    Adding 4 hours to 9 o'clock gives 1 o'clock, since 13 is congruent to 1 modulo 12. In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around" when reaching a certain value, called the modulus. The modern approach to modular arithmetic was developed by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his book Disquisitiones ...

  6. Multiplicative order - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplicative_order

    The multiplicative order of a number a modulo n is the order of a in the multiplicative group whose elements are the residues modulo n of the numbers coprime to n, and whose group operation is multiplication modulo n. This is the group of units of the ring Zn; it has φ (n) elements, φ being Euler's totient function, and is denoted as U (n) or ...

  7. Quadratic reciprocity - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_reciprocity

    The former are ≡ ±1 (mod 5) and the latter are ≡ ±2 (mod 5). Since the only residues (mod 5) are ±1, we see that 5 is a quadratic residue modulo every prime which is a residue modulo 5. −5 is in rows 3, 7, 23, 29, 41, 43, and 47 but not in rows 11, 13, 17, 19, 31, or 37.

  8. Hierarchy problem - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_problem

    Technical definition. A hierarchy problem [2] occurs when the fundamental value of some physical parameter, such as a coupling constant or a mass, in some Lagrangian is vastly different from its effective value, which is the value that gets measured in an experiment. This happens because the effective value is related to the fundamental value ...

  9. Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_formulation...

    The sum over r covers other degrees of freedom specific for the field, such as polarization or spin; it usually comes out as a sum from 1 to 2 or from 1 to 3. E p is the relativistic energy for a momentum p quantum of the field, = m 2 c 4 + c 2 p 2 {\textstyle ={\sqrt {m^{2}c^{4}+c^{2}\mathbf {p} ^{2}}}} when the rest mass is m .

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