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Similar interactions within a species are known as co-operation. Mutualism may be classified in terms of the closeness of association, the closest being symbiosis, which is often confused with mutualism. One or both species involved in the interaction may be obligate, meaning they cannot survive in the short or long term without the other species.
One of the first references to animal cooperation was made by Charles Darwin, who noted it as a potential problem for his theory of natural selection. [48] In most of the 19th century, intellectuals like Thomas Henry Huxley and Peter Kropotkin debated fervently on whether animals cooperate with one another and whether animals displayed ...
Social learning refers to learning that is facilitated by observation of, or interaction with, another animal or its products. [1] Social learning has been observed in a variety of animal taxa , [ 2 ] [ 3 ] such as insects , [ 4 ] fish , [ 5 ] birds , [ 6 ] reptiles , amphibians [ 7 ] and mammals (including primates [ 8 ] ).
Terminology of animal groups also varies among different taxonomic groups. Groups of sheep are termed herds, whilst groups of birds are referred to as colonies, or flocks. Most studies on group living focus strictly on groups comprising a single species. However, many mixed-species groups commonly occur in nature.
A kairomone is a semiochemical released by an organism that mediates interspecific interactions in a way that benefits a different species at the expense of the emitter. [20] Derived from the Greek καιρός , meaning " opportune moment" [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] , it serves as a form of "eavesdropping", enabling the receiver to gain an advantage ...
Mutualism can be contrasted with interspecific competition, in which each species experiences reduced fitness, and exploitation, and with parasitism, in which one species benefits at the expense of the other. [2] However, mutualism may evolve from interactions that began with imbalanced benefits, such as parasitism. [3]
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One hypothesis for the origin of the nucleus in eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi, and protists) is that it developed from a symbiogenesis between bacteria and archaea. [ 5 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea, similar to modern methanogenic archaea, invaded and lived within bacteria similar to ...