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Rankine's theory (maximum-normal stress theory), developed in 1857 by William John Macquorn Rankine, [1] is a stress field solution that predicts active and passive earth pressure. It assumes that the soil is cohesionless, the wall is frictionless, the soil-wall interface is vertical, the failure surface on which the soil moves is planar , and ...
To limit global warming to less than 1.5 °C global greenhouse gas emissions needs to be net-zero by 2050, or by 2070 with a 2 °C target. [271] This requires far-reaching, systemic changes on an unprecedented scale in energy, land, cities, transport, buildings, and industry.
[34] [35] There is growing evidence that tillage erosion is a major soil erosion process in agricultural lands, surpassing water and wind erosion in many fields all around the world, especially on sloping and hilly lands [36] [37] [38] A signature spatial pattern of soil erosion shown in many water erosion handbooks and pamphlets, the eroded ...
In the 1980s, the terms global warming and climate change became more common, often being used interchangeably. [118] [119] [120] Scientifically, global warming refers only to increased surface warming, while climate change describes both global warming and its effects on Earth's climate system, such as precipitation changes. [117]
An example of lateral earth pressure overturning a retaining wall. The lateral earth pressure is the pressure that soil exerts in the horizontal direction. It is important because it affects the consolidation behavior and strength of the soil and because it is considered in the design of geotechnical engineering structures such as retaining walls, basements, tunnels, deep foundations and ...
William John Macquorn Rankine FRSE FRS (/ ˈ r æ ŋ k ɪ n /; 5 July 1820 – 24 December 1872) was a Scottish mathematician and physicist.He was a founding contributor, with Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), to the science of thermodynamics, particularly focusing on its First Law.
[7] [11] [12] Contrary to what an equilibrium between the erosion rates functions described above and the soil production function should imply soil depth can vary considerably in parabolic hills as result of stochastic bedrock weathering into soil.
The Arctic was historically described as warming twice as fast as the global average, [39] but this estimate was based on older observations which missed the more recent acceleration. By 2021, enough data was available to show that the Arctic had warmed three times as fast as the globe - 3.1°C between 1971 and 2019, as opposed to the global ...