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Closure (mathematics) In mathematics, a subset of a given set is closed under an operation of the larger set if performing that operation on members of the subset always produces a member of that subset. For example, the natural numbers are closed under addition, but not under subtraction: 1 − 2 is not a natural number, although both 1 and 2 ...
Fundamentals. The algebra of sets is the set-theoretic analogue of the algebra of numbers. Just as arithmetic addition and multiplication are associative and commutative, so are set union and intersection; just as the arithmetic relation "less than or equal" is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive, so is the set relation of "subset".
The free group FS is defined to be the group of all reduced words in S, with concatenation of words (followed by reduction if necessary) as group operation. The identity is the empty word. A reduced word is called cyclically reduced if its first and last letter are not inverse to each other.
The Cartesian square of a set X is the Cartesian product X2 = X × X. An example is the 2-dimensional plane R2 = R × R where R is the set of real numbers: [1] R2 is the set of all points (x,y) where x and y are real numbers (see the Cartesian coordinate system). The n-ary Cartesian power of a set X, denoted.
A subset S of R is called a subring if any one of the following equivalent conditions holds: the addition and multiplication of R restrict to give operations S × S → S making S a ring with the same multiplicative identity as R. 1 ∈ S; and for all x, y in S, the elements xy, x + y, and −x are in S.
In other words, a subalgebra of an algebra is a non-empty subset of elements that is closed under addition, multiplication, and scalar multiplication. In symbols, we say that a subset L of a K-algebra A is a subalgebra if for every x, y in L and c in K, we have that x · y, x + y, and cx are all in L.
Ideal (ring theory) In mathematics, and more specifically in ring theory, an ideal of a ring is a special subset of its elements. Ideals generalize certain subsets of the integers, such as the even numbers or the multiples of 3.
A presentation of a group determines a geometry, in the sense of geometric group theory: one has the Cayley graph, which has a metric, called the word metric. These are also two resulting orders, the weak order and the Bruhat order, and corresponding Hasse diagrams. An important example is in the Coxeter groups.
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