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This version of Phenomena is often referred to as the "integral cut". [24] A shorter version of the film was prepared for international release that had a 110-minute running time. [24] This version of the film only cuts out minor material from the "integral cut" with most being a few frames at the end and beginning of shots. [24]
One-loop diagrams are usually computed as the integral over one independent momentum that can "run in the cycle". The Casimir effect , Hawking radiation and Lamb shift are examples of phenomena whose existence can be implied using one-loop Feynman diagrams, especially the well-known "triangle diagram":
Abraham, R.; Marsden, J. E. (2008). Foundations of Mechanics: A Mathematical Exposition of Classical Mechanics with an Introduction to the Qualitative Theory of Dynamical Systems (2nd ed.).
QED was designed to be a popular science book, written in a witty style, and containing just enough quantum-mechanical mathematics to allow the solving of very basic problems in quantum electrodynamics by an educated lay audience. It is unusual for a popular science book in the level of mathematical detail it goes into, actually allowing the ...
The remaining two half-lines in the two X s can be linked to each other in two ways, so that the total number of ways to form the diagram is 4 × 3 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 2, while the denominator is 4! × 4! × 2!. The total symmetry factor is 2, and the contribution of this diagram is divided by 2.
Functional integrals arise in probability, in the study of partial differential equations, and in the path integral approach to the quantum mechanics of particles and fields. In an ordinary integral (in the sense of Lebesgue integration ) there is a function to be integrated (the integrand) and a region of space over which to integrate the ...
In general relativity, an exact solution is a (typically closed form) solution of the Einstein field equations whose derivation does not invoke simplifying approximations of the equations, though the starting point for that derivation may be an idealized case like a perfectly spherical shape of matter.
Phase portrait showing saddle-node bifurcation. Bifurcation theory is the mathematical study of changes in the qualitative or topological structure of a given family of curves, such as the integral curves of a family of vector fields, and the solutions of a family of differential equations.