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China was a monarchy from prehistoric times up to 1912, when a republic was established. The succession of legendary monarchs of China were non-hereditary. Dynastic rule began c. 2070 BC when Yu the Great established the Xia dynasty, [d] and monarchy lasted until 1912 when dynastic rule collapsed together with the monarchical government. [5]
Apart from ethnic Han rulers, China was also ruled by various non-Han monarchs, including Jurchen, Khitan, Manchu, Mongol and Tangut and many others. [20] To justify their reign, non-Han rulers sometimes aligned themselves with the Confucian sages or the Chakravarti of Chinese Buddhism. [5]
In this article, "China" refers to the modern territories controlled by the People's Republic of China (which controls Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau) and the Republic of China (which controls Taiwan area). For more information, see Two Chinas, Political status of Taiwan, One-China policy, 1992 Consensus and One country, two systems.
For most of its history, China was organized into various dynastic states under the rule of hereditary monarchs.Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by Yu the Great c. 2070 BC, [1] and ending with the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912, Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.
The following is a list of empresses and queens consort of China. China has periodically been divided into kingdoms as well as united under empires, resulting in consorts titled both queen and empress. The empress title could also be given posthumously.
Rulers of these dynasties are conventionally translated with the title "king" and sometimes "emperor" in English. Emperor or Huangdi (皇帝; huángdì) was the title of the Chinese head of state of China from its invention by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911.
The following is a simplified family tree for the Qing dynasty, which was established in 1636, ruled China proper from 1644 to 1912. Those who became emperor of China are listed in bold, with their years of reign. Nurhaci was Khan of Later Jin from 1616 to 1626.
While the Qing government was established as an absolute monarchy like previous dynasties in China, by the early 20th century however the Qing court began to move towards a constitutional monarchy, [100] with government bodies like the Advisory Council established and a parliamentary election to prepare for a constitutional government. [101] [102]