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Folds can be regarded as consistently replacing the structural components of a data structure with functions and values. Lists, for example, are built up in many functional languages from two primitives: any list is either an empty list, commonly called nil ([]), or is constructed by prefixing an element in front of another list, creating what is called a cons node ( Cons(X1,Cons(X2,Cons ...
Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm that builds the final sorted array (or list) one item at a time by comparisons.It is much less efficient on large lists than more advanced algorithms such as quicksort, heapsort, or merge sort.
function insertBeginning(List list, Node newNode) // insert node before current first node newNode.next := list.firstNode list.firstNode := newNode Similarly, there are functions for removing the node after a given node, and for removing a node from the beginning of the list.
A similar function can be defined for popping and then inserting, which in Python is called "heapreplace": // Extract the root of the heap, and push a new item // heap : an array representing the heap, indexed at 1 // item : an element to insert // Returns the current root of heap Replace ( heap : List<T>, item : T) -> T: swap heap [1] and item ...
Used in Python 2.3 and up, and Java SE 7. Insertion sorts Insertion sort: determine where the current item belongs in the list of sorted ones, and insert it there; Library sort; Patience sorting; Shell sort: an attempt to improve insertion sort; Tree sort (binary tree sort): build binary tree, then traverse it to create sorted list
where rotateRev(front, middle, rear) is a function that returns the front, followed by the middle reversed, followed by the rear. This function is also defined using laziness to ensure that it can be computed step by step, with one step executed during each insert' and tail' and taking a constant time.
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In Python, functions are first-class objects that can be created and passed around dynamically. Python's limited support for anonymous functions is the lambda construct. An example is the anonymous function which squares its input, called with the argument of 5: