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Beneish M-score is a probabilistic model, so it cannot detect companies that manipulate their earnings with 100% accuracy. Financial institutions were excluded from the sample in Beneish paper when calculating M-score since these institutions make money through different routes.
The Mincer earnings function is a single-equation model that explains wage income as a function of schooling and experience. It is named after Jacob Mincer. [1] [2] Thomas Lemieux argues it is "one of the most widely used models in empirical economics". The equation has been examined on many datasets.
Derivation of the Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient for global income in 2011. Data from 2005. Points on the Lorenz curve represent statements such as, "the bottom 20% of all households have 10% of the total income." A perfectly equal income distribution would be one in which every person has the same income.
According to economist Robert J. Shiller, real earnings per share grew at a 3.5% annualized rate over 150 years. [2] Since 1980, the most bullish period in U.S. stock market history, real earnings growth according to Shiller, has been 2.6%. The table below gives recent values of earnings growth for S&P 500.
The return on equity (ROE) is a measure of the profitability of a business in relation to its equity; [1] where: . ROE = Net Income / Average Shareholders' Equity [1] Thus, ROE is equal to a fiscal year's net income (after preferred stock dividends, before common stock dividends), divided by total equity (excluding preferred shares), expressed as a percentage.
The company's operating income margin or return on sales (ROS) is (EBIT ÷ Revenue). This is the operating income per dollar of sales. [EBIT/Revenue] The company's asset turnover (ATO) is (Revenue ÷ Average Total Assets). The company's equity multiplier is (Average Total Assets ÷ Average Total Equity). This is a measure of financial leverage.
Aggregate income [1] [2] [3] is the total of all incomes in an economy without adjustments for inflation, taxation, or types of double counting. [4] Aggregate income is a form of GDP that is equal to Consumption expenditure plus net profits.
One offshoot of this discounted cash flow analysis is the disputed Fed model, which compares the earnings yield to the nominal 10-year Treasury bond yield. Grinold, Kroner, and Siegel (2011) estimated the inputs to the Grinold and Kroner model and arrived at a then-current equity risk premium estimate between 3.5% and 4%. [ 2 ]