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An example of an order parameter for crystallization is "bond orientational order" describing the development of preferred directions (the crystallographic axes) in space. For many systems, phases with more structural (e.g. crystalline) order exhibit less entropy than fluid phases under the same thermodynamic conditions.
Research concerning the relationship between the thermodynamic quantity entropy and both the origin and evolution of life began around the turn of the 20th century. In 1910 American historian Henry Adams printed and distributed to university libraries and history professors the small volume A Letter to American Teachers of History proposing a theory of history based on the second law of ...
Thus, for example, if Q was 50 units, T 1 was initially 100 degrees, and T 2 was 1 degree, then the entropy change for this process would be 49.5. Hence, entropy increased for this process, the process took a certain amount of "time", and one can correlate entropy increase with the passage of time.
The first iterate (blue) is the initial condition, which essentially forms a circle. Animation shows the first to the sixth iteration of the circular initial conditions. It can be seen that mixing occurs as we progress in iterations. The sixth iteration shows that the points are almost completely scattered in the phase space.
Landau theory (also known as Ginzburg–Landau theory, despite the confusing name [1]) in physics is a theory that Lev Landau introduced in an attempt to formulate a general theory of continuous (i.e., second-order) phase transitions. [2]
An example of second-order conditioning. In classical conditioning, second-order conditioning or higher-order conditioning is a form of learning in which a stimulus is first made meaningful or consequential for an organism through an initial step of learning, and then that stimulus is used as a basis for learning about some new stimulus.
The situation calculus represents changing scenarios as a set of first-order logic formulae. The basic elements of the calculus are: The actions that can be performed in the world; The fluents that describe the state of the world; The situations; A domain is formalized by a number of formulae, namely:
As an aside, it may be noted that real-world departures from this linear two-pole model occur due to two major complications: first, real amplifiers have more than two poles, as well as zeros; and second, real amplifiers are nonlinear, so their step response changes with signal amplitude. Figure 4: Step response for three values of α.