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The different steps at which phages may disrupt biofilm formation. The biofilm surrounding the bacteria would inhibit the ability of antibiotics to reach bacteria, but may have less impact on the phages. Phage therapy is being used to great effect in the treatment of biofilm infections, especially Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus.
The C2DA inhibit methicillin resistant staphylococcus biofilm, but don't eliminate it. The mechanism of the biofilm inhibition by these molecules is still unknown. C2D is a medium of fatty acid chain that effect on staphylococcus aureus biofilm and dispersion of these biofilm. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the main source for these molecules. [15]
Persister cells are highly enriched in biofilms, and this makes biofilm-related diseases difficult to treat. Examples are chronic infections of implanted medical devices such as catheters and artificial joints, urinary tract infections, middle ear infections and fatal lung disease. [13]
Biofilm formation of P. aeruginosa, along with other bacteria, is found in 90% of chronic wound infections, which leads to poor healing and high cost of treatment estimated at more than US$25 billion every year in the United States. [113]
Antibiotics are largely ineffective in clearing biofilms. The most common treatment for these infections is to remove or replace the infected implant, though in all cases, prevention is ideal. The drug of choice is often vancomycin, to which rifampin or an aminoglycoside can be added.
Nitroxoline is an antibiotic [1] that has been in use in Europe for about fifty years, and has proven to be very effective at combating biofilm infections. Nitroxoline was shown to cause a decrease in the biofilm density of P. aeruginosa infections, which would allow access to the infection by the immune system in vivo. [2]
Infections can be localized or systemic, and are often associated with the insertion of medical devices. [6] [7] [8] The highly antibiotic-resistant phenotype and ability to form biofilms make S. haemolyticus a difficult pathogen to treat. [5] Its most closely related species is Staphylococcus borealis. [9]
Gingivitis is a non-destructive disease that causes inflammation of the gums; [1] ulitis is an alternative term. [2] The most common form of gingivitis, and the most common form of periodontal disease overall, is in response to bacterial biofilms (also called plaque) that are attached to tooth surfaces, termed plaque-induced gingivitis.
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