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It is administered subcutaneously through injection or an insulin pump. [26] [27] The effects typically begin within 30 minutes and last for about 5 hours. [26] Often, a longer-acting insulin, such as insulin NPH, is also required. [26] Common side effects include low blood sugar, while more serious side effects may include low blood potassium ...
The insulin receptor (IR) is a transmembrane receptor that is activated by insulin, IGF-I, IGF-II and belongs to the large class of receptor tyrosine kinase. [5] Metabolically, the insulin receptor plays a key role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis; a functional process that under degenerate conditions may result in a range of clinical manifestations including diabetes and cancer.
Some side effects are hypoglycemia (low blood sugar), hypokalemia (low blood potassium), and allergic reactions. [6] Allergy to insulin affected about 2% of people, of which most reactions are not due to the insulin itself but to preservatives added to insulin such as zinc, protamine, and meta-cresol.
Due to these diverse effects, there has been significant interest in developing long-lasting agonists of the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D). GLP1R is also expressed in the brain [19] where it is involved in the control of appetite. [20] Furthermore, mice that over express GLP1R display improved memory and ...
A meta-analysis completed in 2007 and updated in 2020 of numerous randomized controlled trials by the international Cochrane Collaboration found that the effects on blood glucose and glycated haemoglobin A1c were comparable, treatment with glargine and detemir resulted in fewer cases of hypoglycemia when compared to NPH insulin. [24] Treatment ...
Side effects on the digestive system include nausea (feeling sick), diarrhea, vomiting, constipation, dyspepsia (indigestion), gastritis (inflammation of the stomach), abdominal pain (stomach ache), flatulence (wind), gastroesophageal reflux disease (passage of stomach acid back up towards the mouth), and distension (swelling) of the belly.
A fourth class of dual PPAR agonists, so-called glitazars, which bind to both the α and γ PPAR isoforms, are currently under active investigation for treatment of a larger subset of the symptoms of the metabolic syndrome. [5] [6] These include the experimental compounds aleglitazar, muraglitazar, oxeglitazar, naveglitazar and tesaglitazar.
The receptor is a member of a family which consists of the insulin receptor and the IGF-2R (and their respective ligands IGF-1 and IGF-2), along with several IGF-binding proteins. IGF-1R and the insulin receptor both have a binding site for ATP, which is used to provide the phosphates for autophosphorylation. There is a 60% homology between IGF ...