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The Nottingham prognostic index (NPI) is used to determine prognosis following surgery for breast cancer. [1] [2] Its value is calculated using three pathological criteria: the size of the tumour; the number of involved lymph nodes; and the grade of the tumour. [1] It is calculated to select patients for adjuvant treatment.
The widely used prognostic markers in cancers include stage, size, grade, node and metastasis. In addition to these common markers, there are prognostic markers specific to different cancer types. For example estrogen level, progesterone and HER2 are markers specific to breast cancer patients.
Grading in cancer is distinguished from staging, which is a measure of the extent to which the cancer has spread. Pathology grading systems classify the microscopic cell appearance abnormality and deviations in their rate of growth with the goal of predicting developments at tissue level (see also the 4 major histological changes in dysplasia ).
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3D medical illustration depicting the TNM stages in breast cancer. Cancer staging can be divided into a clinical stage and a pathologic stage. In the TNM (Tumor, Node, Metastasis) system, clinical stage and pathologic stage are denoted by a small "c" or "p" before the stage (e.g., cT3N1M0 or pT2N0).
The National Institute of Health (NIH) attributes the increase in the 5-year relative survival of prostate cancer (from 69% in the 1970s to 100% in 2006) to screening and diagnosis and due to the fact that men that participate in screening tend to be healthier and live longer than the average man and testing techniques that are able to detect ...
Prostate cancer staging is the process by which physicians categorize the risk of cancer having spread beyond the prostate, or equivalently, the probability of being cured with local therapies such as surgery or radiation. Once patients are placed in prognostic categories, this information can contribute to the selection of an optimal approach ...
Similar findings have been reported for colorectal cancer as well. [22] [23] There are two types of circulating tumor cell cluster, one that consists of cancer cells only is termed homotypic. A CTC cluster that also incorporates other cells including white blood cells, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and platelets, is termed heterotypic. [24]