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It is the major cause of liver disease in Western countries, and is the leading cause of death from excessive drinking. [2] [3] Although steatosis (fatty liver disease) will develop in any individual who consumes a large quantity of alcoholic beverages over a long period of time, this process is transient and reversible. [1]
Liver regeneration is the process by which the liver is able to replace damaged or lost liver tissue. The liver is the only visceral organ with the capacity to regenerate. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The liver can regenerate after partial hepatectomy or injury due to hepatotoxic agents such as certain medications, toxins, or chemicals. [ 3 ]
The underlying mechanism involves a decreased responsiveness of GABA receptors in the brain. [3] The withdrawal process is typically followed using the Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol scale (CIWA-Ar). [3] The typical treatment of alcohol withdrawal is with benzodiazepines such as chlordiazepoxide or diazepam. [2]
A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which the estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon. [13] The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease. [14]
The biological half-life of water in a human is about 7 to 14 days. It can be altered by behavior. Drinking large amounts of alcohol will reduce the biological half-life of water in the body.
After 2 or 3 days of fasting, the liver begins to synthesize ketone bodies from precursors obtained from fatty acid breakdown. The brain uses these ketone bodies as fuel, thus cutting its requirement for glucose. After fasting for 3 days, the brain gets 30% of its energy from ketone bodies. After 4 days, this goes up to 75%. [6]
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that most adults consume no more than 400 milligrams of caffeine per day. This is roughly equivalent to two to three 12-ounce cups of coffee.
The health effects of coffee include various possible health benefits and health risks. [1]A 2017 umbrella review of meta-analyses found that drinking coffee is generally safe within usual levels of intake and is more likely to improve health outcomes than to cause harm at doses of 3 or 4 cups of coffee daily.