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1934 – Falsifiability as a criterion for evaluating new hypotheses is popularized by Karl Popper's The Logic of Scientific Discovery. 1937 – The first complete placebo trial is undertaken. The American pharmacologist Harry Gold, studying the effect of xanthines on cardiac pain, alternates them with a placebo and shows them to be ineffective.
1983: Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction, a key discovery in molecular biology; 1986: Karl Müller and Johannes Bednorz: Discovery of High-temperature superconductivity; 1988: Bart van Wees and colleagues at TU Delft and Philips Research discovered the quantized conductance in a two-dimensional electron gas.
Multiple discovery sometimes occurs when multiple research groups discover the same phenomenon at about the same time, and scientific priority is often disputed. The listings below include some of the most significant people and ideas by date of publication or experiment.
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February 13 Max Perutz publishes the structure of hemoglobin. [4]John Kendrew publishes the structure of myoglobin. [5]March 5 – British marine biologist Sir Alister Hardy announces his aquatic ape hypothesis, theorising that swimming and diving for food exerted a strong evolutionary effect partly responsible for the divergence in the common descent of humans and other great apes.
Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together. [5] The distinction may blur as science becomes increasingly collaborative. [6] A distinction is drawn between a discovery and an invention, as discussed for example by Bolesław Prus. [7]
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The Scientists: An Epic of Discovery (2012), edited by Andrew Robinson, is a collection of 43 biographies of a selection of the greatest scientists of all time. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] An updated paperback edition of the book entitled The Scientists: Pioneers of Discovery appeared in 2023.