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  2. Monte Carlo method - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method

    Uniformly scatter a given number of points over the square; Count the number of points inside the quadrant, i.e. having a distance from the origin of less than 1; The ratio of the inside-count and the total-sample-count is an estimate of the ratio of the two areas, ⁠ π / 4 ⁠. Multiply the result by 4 to estimate π.

  3. Bertrand's ballot theorem - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand's_ballot_theorem

    The variant problem can be solved by the reflection method in a similar way to the original problem. The number of possible vote sequences is (+). Call a sequence "bad" if the second candidate is ever ahead, and if the number of bad sequences can be enumerated then the number of "good" sequences can be found by subtraction and the probability ...

  4. Collatz conjecture - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collatz_conjecture

    Which operation is performed, ⁠ 3n + 1 / 2 ⁠ or ⁠ n / 2 ⁠, depends on the parity. The parity sequence is the same as the sequence of operations. Using this form for f(n), it can be shown that the parity sequences for two numbers m and n will agree in the first k terms if and only if m and n are equivalent modulo 2 k. This implies that ...

  5. Random walk - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_walk

    A random walk is a discrete fractal (a function with integer dimensions; 1, 2, ...), but a Wiener process trajectory is a true fractal, and there is a connection between the two. For example, take a random walk until it hits a circle of radius r times the step length. The average number of steps it performs is r 2. [citation needed] This fact ...

  6. Random number generation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_number_generation

    Dice are an example of a mechanical hardware random number generator. When a cubical die is rolled, a random number from 1 to 6 is obtained. Random number generation is a process by which, often by means of a random number generator (RNG), a sequence of numbers or symbols that cannot be reasonably predicted better than by random chance is generated.

  7. Random permutation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_permutation

    A random permutation is a random ordering of a set of objects, that is, a permutation -valued random variable. The use of random permutations is common in games of chance and in randomized algorithms in coding theory, cryptography, and simulation. A good example of a random permutation is the fair shuffling of a standard deck of cards: this is ...

  8. Blum Blum Shub - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blum_Blum_Shub

    Blum Blum Shub (B.B.S.) is a pseudorandom number generator proposed in 1986 by Lenore Blum, Manuel Blum and Michael Shub [1] that is derived from Michael O. Rabin 's one-way function. Blum Blum Shub takes the form. where M = pq is the product of two large primes p and q. At each step of the algorithm, some output is derived from xn+1; the ...

  9. Coupling (probability) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_(probability)

    Coupling (probability) In probability theory, coupling is a proof technique that allows one to compare two unrelated random variables (distributions) X and Y by creating a random vector W whose marginal distributions correspond to X and Y respectively. The choice of W is generally not unique, and the whole idea of "coupling" is about making ...

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