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Graph of a polynomial function of degree 4, with its 4 roots and 3 critical points. + + + + = where a ≠ 0. The quartic is the highest order polynomial equation that can be solved by radicals in the general case (i.e., one in which the coefficients can take any value).
A square root of a number x is a number r which, when squared, becomes x: =. Every positive real number has two square roots, one positive and one negative. For example, the two square roots of 25 are 5 and −5. The positive square root is also known as the principal square root, and is denoted with a radical sign:
Geometric representation of the 2nd to 6th root of a general complex number in polar form. For the nth root of unity, set r = 1 and φ = 0. The principal root is in black. An n th root of unity, where n is a positive integer, is a number z satisfying the equation [1] [2] =
In order to determine the right sign of the square roots, one simply chooses some square root for each of the numbers α, β, and γ and uses them to compute the numbers r 1, r 2, r 3, and r 4 from the previous equalities. Then, one computes the number √ α √ β √ γ.
Finding roots −1/2, −1/ √ 2, and 1/ √ 2 of the cubic 4x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x − 1, showing how negative coefficients and extended segments are handled. Each number shown on a colored line is the negative of its slope and hence a real root of the polynomial. To employ the method, a diagram is drawn starting at the origin.
Primitive root modulo m: A number g is a primitive root modulo m if, for every integer a coprime to m, there is an integer k such that g k ≡ a (mod m). A primitive root modulo m exists if and only if m is equal to 2, 4, p k or 2p k, where p is an odd prime number and k is a positive integer.
Analogously, the inverses of tetration are often called the super-root, and the super-logarithm (In fact, all hyperoperations greater than or equal to 3 have analogous inverses); e.g., in the function =, the two inverses are the cube super-root of y and the super-logarithm base y of x.
In modular arithmetic, a number g is a primitive root modulo n if every number a coprime to n is congruent to a power of g modulo n. That is, g is a primitive root modulo n if for every integer a coprime to n, there is some integer k for which g k ≡ a (mod n). Such a value k is called the index or discrete logarithm of a to the base g modulo n.