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The effect of dynamical friction explains why the brightest (more massive) galaxy tends to be found near the center of a galaxy cluster. The effect of the two body collisions slows down the galaxy, and the drag effect is greater the larger the galaxy mass. When the galaxy loses kinetic energy, it moves towards the center of the cluster.
Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other. [7] [8] Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces. [9] [10] [11] Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body.
In mathematics, the Navier–Stokes equations are a system of nonlinear partial differential equations for abstract vector fields of any size. In physics and engineering, they are a system of equations that model the motion of liquids or non-rarefied gases (in which the mean free path is short enough so that it can be thought of as a continuum mean instead of a collection of particles) using ...
What caused the Maunder Minimum and other grand minima, and how does the solar cycle recover from a minimum state? Coronal heating problem: Why is the Sun's corona so much hotter than the Sun's surface? Why is the magnetic reconnection effect many orders of magnitude faster than predicted by standard models? Space weather prediction:
Using the upper limit of the cosmological constant, the vacuum energy of free space has been estimated to be 10 −9 joules (10 −2 ergs), or ~5 GeV per cubic meter. [3] However, in quantum electrodynamics , consistency with the principle of Lorentz covariance and with the magnitude of the Planck constant suggests a much larger value of 10 113 ...
and are the masses of objects 1 and 2, and is the specific angular momentum of object 2 with respect to object 1. The parameter θ {\displaystyle \theta } is known as the true anomaly , p {\displaystyle p} is the semi-latus rectum , while e {\displaystyle e} is the orbital eccentricity , all obtainable from the various forms of the six ...
Isaac Newton suggests the existence of an aether in the Third Book of Opticks (1st ed. 1704; 2nd ed. 1718): "Doth not this aethereal medium in passing out of water, glass, crystal, and other compact and dense bodies in empty spaces, grow denser and denser by degrees, and by that means refract the rays of light not in a point, but by bending them gradually in curve lines? ...
In liquid helium-4, the superfluidity occurs at far higher temperatures than it does in helium-3. Each atom of helium-4 is a boson particle, by virtue of its integer spin . A helium-3 atom is a fermion particle; it can form bosons only by pairing with another particle like itself, which occurs at much lower temperatures.