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For example, for an observer B with a height of h B =1.70 m standing on the ground, the horizon is D B =4.65 km away. For a tower with a height of h L =100 m, the horizon distance is D L =35.7 km. Thus an observer on a beach can see the top of the tower as long as it is not more than D BL =40.35 km away.
The comoving distance from an observer to a distant object (e.g. galaxy) can be computed by the following formula (derived using the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric): = ′ (′) where a(t′) is the scale factor, t e is the time of emission of the photons detected by the observer, t is the present time, and c is the speed of ...
a) the greatest distance at which a black object of suitable dimensions, situated near the ground, can be seen and recognized when observed against a bright background; b) the greatest distance at which lights of 1,000 candelas can be seen and identified against an unlit background. Note.—
The particle horizon is the boundary between two regions at a point at a given time: one region defined by events that have already been observed by an observer, and the other by events which cannot be observed at that time. It represents the furthest distance from which we can retrieve information from the past, and so defines the observable ...
This reduces the shadow zone, but causes errors in distance and height measuring. In practice, to find , one must be using a value of 8.5·10 3 km for the effective Earth's radius (4/3 of it), instead of the real one. [2] So the equation becomes:
If the height h is given in feet, and the distance d in statute miles, d ≈ 1.23 ⋅ h {\displaystyle d\approx 1.23\cdot {\sqrt {h}}} R is the radius of the Earth, h is the height of the ground station, H is the height of the air station d is the line of sight distance
Thus 4 minutes (more precisely 3 minutes, 56 seconds), in the equation of time, are represented by the same distance as 1° in the declination, since Earth rotates at a mean speed of 1° every 4 minutes, relative to the Sun. An analemma is drawn as it would be seen in the sky by an observer looking upward.
It is described by the equation v = H 0 D, with H 0 the constant of proportionality—the Hubble constant—between the "proper distance" D to a galaxy (which can change over time, unlike the comoving distance) and its speed of separation v, i.e. the derivative of proper distance with respect to the cosmic time coordinate.