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The fruits of T. vernicifluum can also be processed to produce a waxy substance known as Japan wax used for numerous purposes including varnishing furniture and producing candles. [8] [9] The fruits of the trees are harvested, dried, steamed, and pressed to extract the wax, which hardens when cooled. [10]
The conical rousoku candles produced from sumac wax burn with smokeless flame and were favored in many respects over candles made from lard or beeswax during the Tokugawa shogunate. Japan wax is not a true wax but a solid fat that contains 10-15% palmitin , stearin , and olein with about 1% japanic acid (1,21-heneicosanedioic acid).
Candle moulding machine in Indonesia circa 1920. Candle making was developed independently in a number of countries around the world. [1]Candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax in Europe from the Roman period until the modern era, when spermaceti (from sperm whales) was used in the 18th and 19th centuries, [2] and purified animal fats and paraffin wax since the 19th century. [1]
The wax scales are about three millimetres (0.12 in) across and 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) thick, and about 1100 are needed to make a gram of wax. [3] Worker bees use the beeswax to build honeycomb cells. For the wax-making bees to secrete wax, the ambient temperature in the hive must be 33 to 36 °C (91 to 97 °F).
The most-at-risk organisms were algae colonies which often experienced "significant biomass decline and community composition shift[s]" when exposed to DEET at 500 ng/L. [37] DEET is biodegraded by fungi into products less toxic to zooplankton. [35] It degrades well under aerobic conditions, but poorly and slowly under anaerobic conditions. [38]
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Candles were also made from stearin (initially manufactured from animal fats but now produced almost exclusively from palm waxes). [37] [38] Today, most candles are made from paraffin wax, a byproduct of petroleum refining. [39] The hydrocarbon C 31 H 64 is a typical component of paraffin wax, from which most modern candles are produced.