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Common return electrode locations include lateral portions of the outer thighs, abdomen, back, or shoulder blades. [8] The use of the bipolar option does not require the placement of a return electrode because the current only passes between tines of the forceps or other bipolar output device.
A transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS or TNS) is a device that produces mild electric current to stimulate the nerves for therapeutic purposes.TENS, by definition, covers the complete range of transcutaneously applied currents used for nerve excitation, but the term is often used with a more restrictive intent, namely, to describe the kind of pulses produced by portable ...
In epiretinal approach, electrodes are placed on the top side of the retina near ganglion cells, [32] whereas the electrodes are placed under the retina in subretinal approaches. [33] Finally, the posterior scleral surface of the eye is the place in which extraocular approach electrodes are positioned.
The electrodes are placed either via a minimally invasive needle technique (so-called percutaneous leads) or an open surgical exposure (surgical "paddle" electrodes). Patient selection is key, and candidates should pass rigorous psychological screening as well as a medical workup to assure that their pain syndrome is truly medication-resistant ...
Surgery is typically performed by placing an electrode around the phrenic nerve, either in the neck (i.e., cervically; an older technique), or in the chest (i.e., thoracically; more modern). This electrode is connected to a radiofrequency receiver which is implanted just under the skin.
Functional electrical stimulation has been found to be effective for the management of pain and reduction of shoulder subluxation, as well as accelerating the degree and rate of motor recovery. Furthermore, the benefits of FES are maintained over time; research has demonstrated that the benefits are maintained for at least 24 months.
Sacral nerve stimulation, also termed sacral neuromodulation, is a type of medical electrical stimulation therapy.. It typically involves the implantation of a programmable stimulator subcutaneously, which delivers low amplitude electrical stimulation via a lead to the sacral nerve, usually accessed via the S3 foramen.
The most common use of SCS is failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) in the United States and peripheral ischemic pain in Europe. [4] [5]As of 2014 the FDA had approved SCS as a treatment for FBSS, chronic pain, complex regional pain syndrome, intractable angina, as well as visceral abdominal and perineal pain [1] and pain in the extremities from nerve damage.