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The mediaeval great chain of being as a staircase, implying the possibility of progress: [1] Ramon Lull's Ladder of Ascent and Descent of the Mind, 1305. Alternatives to Darwinian evolution have been proposed by scholars investigating biology to explain signs of evolution and the relatedness of different groups of living things.
Objections to evolution have been raised since evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the 19th century. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, his theory of evolution (the idea that species arose through descent with modification from a single common ancestor in a process driven by natural selection) initially met opposition from scientists with different ...
The opposite of reductionism is holism, a word coined by Jan Smuts in Holism and Evolution, that understanding a system can be done only as a whole.One form of antireductionism (epistemological) holds that we simply are not capable of understanding systems at the level of their most basic constituents, and so the program of reductionism must fail.
"Diffusionism", in its original use in the 19th and early 20th centuries, did not preclude migration or invasion.It was rather the term for assumption of any spread of cultural innovation, including by migration or invasion, as opposed "evolutionism", assuming the independent appearance of cultural innovation in a process of parallel evolution, termed "cultural evolutionism".
Motile marine animals are commonly called free-swimming, [10] [11] [12] and motile non-parasitic organisms are called free-living. [13] Motility includes an organism's ability to move food through its digestive tract. There are two types of intestinal motility – peristalsis and segmentation. [14]
Design of Experiments: A systematic, rigorous approach to engineering problem-solving that applies principles and techniques at the data collection stage so as to ensure the generation of valid, defensible, and supportable engineering conclusions [1] Design Point: A single combination of settings for the independent variables of an experiment.
Directional selection can be observed in finch beak size, peppered moth color, African cichlid mouth types, and sockeye salmon migration periods. If there is continuous allele frequency change as a result of directional selection generation from generation, there will be observable changes in the phenotypes of the entire population over time.
It is the most common form of migration in ecology. [5] It is found in all major animal groups, including birds, [6] mammals, [7] fish, [8] [9] reptiles, [10] amphibians, insects, [11] and crustaceans. [12] [13] The cause of migration may be local climate, local availability of food, the season of the year or for mating. [5]