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The BER is the likelihood of a bit misinterpretation due to electrical noise ().Considering a bipolar NRZ transmission, we have = + for a "1" and () = + for a "0".Each of () and () has a period of .
As the description implies, is the signal energy associated with each user data bit; it is equal to the signal power divided by the user bit rate (not the channel symbol rate). If signal power is in watts and bit rate is in bits per second, E b {\displaystyle E_{b}} is in units of joules (watt-seconds).
In the above formula, P is measured in units of power, such as watts (W) or milliwatts (mW), and the signal-to-noise ratio is a pure number. However, when the signal and noise are measured in volts (V) or amperes (A), which are measures of amplitude, [ note 1 ] they must first be squared to obtain a quantity proportional to power, as shown below:
Turbo coding is an iterated soft-decoding scheme that combines two or more relatively simple convolutional codes and an interleaver to produce a block code that can perform to within a fraction of a decibel of the Shannon limit.
Inconsistencies of atmospheric conditions affect the speed of the GPS signals as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere, especially the ionosphere.Correcting these errors is a significant challenge to improving GPS position accuracy.
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