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Hinduism identifies six pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and to truths: Pratyakṣa (evidence/ perception), Anumāna (inference), Upamāna (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), Anupalabdhi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).
Nyaya philosophy emphasizes the importance of universals, qualities, and relations in understanding the organization of the world. These foundational elements are believed to play essential roles in determining the phenomenological, causal, and logical organization of the world, playing a crucial role in the classification of objects. [58]
The history of Vedanta can be divided into two periods: one prior to the composition of the Brahma Sutras and the other encompassing the schools that developed after the Brahma Sutras were written. Until the 11th century, Vedanta was a peripheral school of thought.
According to Gaudapada, this absolute, Brahman, cannot undergo alteration, so the phenomenal world cannot arise from Brahman. If the world cannot arise, yet is an empirical fact, then the world has to be an unreal [note 18] appearance of Brahman. From the level of ultimate truth (paramārthatā) the phenomenal world is Maya (illusion). [228]
Together with smṛti ("that which is remembered, tradition": Dharmaśāstra, Hindu Epics, Puranas), ācāra (good custom), and ātmatuṣṭi ("what is pleasing to oneself"), it provides pramana (means of knowledge) and sources of dharma, as expressed in Classical Hindu law, philosophy, rituals and customs.
Dharmakīrti (fl. c. 600–670 CE; [1]), was an influential Indian Buddhist philosopher who worked at Nālandā. [2] He was one of the key scholars of epistemology in Buddhist philosophy, and is associated with the Yogācāra [3] and Sautrāntika schools.
While the term may refer to various Buddhist systems and views on reasoning and epistemology, it is most often used to refer to the work of the "Epistemological school" (Sanskrit: Pramāṇa-vāda), i.e. the school of Dignaga and Dharmakirti which developed from the 5th through 7th centuries and remained the main system of Buddhist reasoning until the decline of Buddhism in India.
Pratyaksha (Sanskrit: Sanskrit: प्रत्यक्ष IAST: pratyakṣa) literally means that which is perceptible to the eye or visible; in general usage, it refers to being present, present before the eye (i.e. within the range of sight), cognizable by any sense organ, distinct, evident, clear, direct, immediate, explicit, corporeal; it is a pramāṇa, or mode of proof. [1]