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Cancer immunotherapy (immuno-oncotherapy) is the stimulation of the immune system to treat cancer, improving the immune system's natural ability to fight the disease. [1] It is an application of the fundamental research of cancer immunology ( immuno-oncology ) and a growing subspecialty of oncology .
Chemotherapy can boost tumor immunity in two main ways: (a) by killing cancer cells through immunogenic cell death, and (b) by affecting both cancerous and normal cells in the tumor environment. Despite this, many chemotherapy treatments can also suppress the immune system by causing lymphopenia or impairing lymphocyte function. Integrating ...
Staging breast cancer is the initial step to help physicians determine the most appropriate course of treatment. As of 2016, guidelines incorporated biologic factors, such as tumor grade, cellular proliferation rate, estrogen and progesterone receptor expression, human epidermal growth factor 2 (HER2) expression, and gene expression profiling into the staging system.
Nausea and vomiting are two of the most feared cancer treatment-related side-effects for people with cancer and their families. In 1983, Coates et al. found that people receiving chemotherapy ranked nausea and vomiting as the first and second most severe side-effects, respectively. [98]
It was approved in 2014. Nivolumab is approved to treat melanoma, lung cancer, kidney cancer, bladder cancer, head and neck cancer, and Hodgkin's lymphoma. [16] Pembrolizumab (brand name Keytruda) is another PD-1 inhibitor that was approved by the FDA in 2014 and was the second checkpoint inhibitor approved in the United States. [17]
Many breast cancer therapies have side effects that can be alleviated with appropriate supportive care. Chemotherapy causes hair loss, nausea, and vomiting in nearly everyone who receives it. Antiemetic drugs can alleviate nausea and vomiting; cooling the scalp with a cold cap during chemotherapy treatments may reduce hair loss. [63]
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