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Representative lifetimes of stars as a function of their masses The change in size with time of a Sun-like star Artist's depiction of the life cycle of a Sun-like star, starting as a main-sequence star at lower left then expanding through the subgiant and giant phases, until its outer envelope is expelled to form a planetary nebula at upper right Chart of stellar evolution A mass-radius plot ...
In massive stars (greater than about 1.5 M ☉), the core temperature is above about 1.8×10 7 K, so hydrogen-to-helium fusion occurs primarily via the CNO cycle. In the CNO cycle, the energy generation rate scales as the temperature to the 15th power, whereas the rate scales as the temperature to the 4th power in the proton-proton chains. [ 2 ]
Even though extremely long lived, those stars will eventually run out of fuel. Once all the available hydrogen has been fused stellar nucleosynthesis stops, and the remaining helium slowly cools by radiation. Gravity contracts the star until electron degeneracy pressure compensates and it goes off the main sequence, i.e. becomes a white dwarf. [2]
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K-type main-sequence stars are about three to four times as abundant as G-type main-sequence stars, making planet searches easier. [17] K-type stars emit less total ultraviolet and other ionizing radiation than G-type stars like the Sun (which can damage DNA and thus hamper the emergence of nucleic acid based life). In fact, many peak in the red.
The counter-intuitive existence of lithium-rich red giant stars that have gone through first dredge-up may be explained by scenarios such as mass transfer. [1] The second dredge-up The second dredge-up occurs in stars with 4–8 solar masses. When helium fusion comes to an end at the core, convection mixes the products of the CNO cycle. [2]
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A protostar is a very young star that is still gathering mass from its parent molecular cloud.It is the earliest phase in the process of stellar evolution. [1] For a low-mass star (i.e. that of the Sun or lower), it lasts about 500,000 years. [2]
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