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Similarly, one can use a multiple of the basic measurement unit: 8.0 km is equivalent to 8.0 × 10 3 m. It indicates a margin of 0.05 km (50 m). However, reliance on this convention can lead to false precision errors when accepting data from sources that do not obey it. For example, a source reporting a number like 153,753 with precision ...
The decibel originates from methods used to quantify signal loss in telegraph and telephone circuits. Until the mid-1920s, the unit for loss was miles of standard cable (MSC). 1 MSC corresponded to the loss of power over one mile (approximately 1.6 km) of standard telephone cable at a frequency of 5000 radians per second (795.8 Hz), and matched closely the smallest attenuation detectable to a ...
For example, a 5.0 earthquake releases 32 times (10 1.5) and a 6.0 releases 1000 times (10 3) the energy of a 4.0. [61] Apparent magnitude measures the brightness of stars logarithmically. [ 62 ] In chemistry the negative of the decimal logarithm, the decimal cologarithm , is indicated by the letter p. [ 63 ]
A 1953 paper "Coding by Feedback Methods" [1] describes "decoding networks" that convert numbers (in any base) represented by voltage sources or current sources connected to resistor networks in a "shunt resistor decoding network" (which in base 2 corresponds to the binary-weighted configuration) or in a "ladder resistor decoding network" (which in base 2 corresponds to R–2R configuration ...
In probability theory and statistics, a normal distribution or Gaussian distribution is a type of continuous probability distribution for a real-valued random variable.The general form of its probability density function is [2] [3] = ().
The measurement of pH can become difficult at extremely acidic or alkaline conditions, such as below pH 2.5 (ca. 0.003 mol/dm 3 acid) or above pH 10.5 (above ca. 0.0003 mol/dm 3 alkaline). This is due to the breakdown of the Nernst equation in such conditions when using a glass electrode.
A positive (+) number indicates that revenues exceeded expenditures (a budget surplus), while a negative (-) number indicates the reverse (a budget deficit). Normalizing the data, by dividing the budget balance by GDP, enables easy comparisons across countries and indicates whether a national government saves or borrows money.
The top 1%, which took home 19.3%, paid 24.2% whereas the bottom 20% paid 0.4% due to deductions and the earned income tax credit. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Total effective tax rates (includes all taxes: federal+state income tax, sales tax, property tax, etc) for the richest Americans declined by 2018 to a level beneath that of the bottom 50% of earners ...