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  2. Causal analysis - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_analysis

    Causal analysis is the field of experimental design and statistics pertaining to establishing cause and effect. [1] Typically it involves establishing four elements: correlation, sequence in time (that is, causes must occur before their proposed effect), a plausible physical or information-theoretical mechanism for an observed effect to follow from a possible cause, and eliminating the ...

  3. APA style - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style

    APA style (also known as APA format) is a writing style and format for academic documents such as scholarly journal articles and books. It is commonly used for citing sources within the field of behavioral and social sciences , including sociology, education, nursing, criminal justice, anthropology, and psychology.

  4. Causal inference - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_inference

    Causal inference is the process of determining the independent, actual effect of a particular phenomenon that is a component of a larger system. The main difference between causal inference and inference of association is that causal inference analyzes the response of an effect variable when a cause of the effect variable is changed.

  5. Ishikawa diagram - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishikawa_diagram

    Sample Ishikawa diagram shows the causes contributing to problem. The defect, or the problem to be solved, [1] is shown as the fish's head, facing to the right, with the causes extending to the left as fishbones; the ribs branch off the backbone for major causes, with sub-branches for root-causes, to as many levels as required.

  6. Causal loop diagram - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_loop_diagram

    A link marked -indicates a negative relation where an increase in the causal variable leads, all else equal, to a decrease in the effect variable, or a decrease in the causal variable leads, all else equal, to an increase in the effect variable. A positive causal link can be said to lead to a change in the same direction, and an opposite link ...

  7. Causal reasoning - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_reasoning

    Causal reasoning is the process of identifying causality: the relationship between a cause and its effect.The study of causality extends from ancient philosophy to contemporary neuropsychology; assumptions about the nature of causality may be shown to be functions of a previous event preceding a later one.

  8. Impact evaluation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_evaluation

    However, much of the existing literature (e.g. NONIE Guidelines on Impact Evaluation [28]) adopts the OECD-DAC definition of impact while referring to the techniques used to attribute impact to an intervention as necessarily based on counterfactual analysis. What is missing from the term 'impact' evaluation is the way 'impact' shows up long-term.

  9. Bradford Hill criteria - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford_Hill_criteria

    Temporality: The effect has to occur after the cause (and if there is an expected delay between the cause and expected effect, then the effect must occur after that delay). Biological gradient (dose–response relationship): Greater exposure should generally lead to greater incidence of the effect. However, in some cases, the mere presence of ...

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